Sunday, September 2, 2007
Stereotype, homosexuals
Numerous fields of psychology lack clear definitions and stereotyping is no exception with the primary definition encompassing the concept as corresponding to an abstract summary of conventional characteristics of group members. Nevertheless the mixed model approach explains both the central role of categorisation in stereotyping in addition to sub-typing and contextual flexibility which is typically explained by the exemplar approach (Jackson, Lewandowski, Ingram & Hodge 1997). People often rely on stereotypes as mental shortcuts or heuristics particularly in regards to negative views against individuals who are different from the majority while the majority of stereotypes do stem from a truth often they are exaggerated or at least generalised well out of proportion. Homosexual behaviour has often been labelled as deviant and the stereotyping of an individual as homosexual has primarily negative consequences that extend primarily but not exclusively to religious, employment, social and legal ramifications. This stereotype has strong connections to religion and although has been prevalent throughout history within varying civilisations particularly as a form of population control it was often considered a taboo and the extent to which homosexuals were stigmatised within society is exemplified through the definition of homosexuality as a mental disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders until 1973 (Gowen & Britt 2006). These inferences are made predominantly due to the individual violating gender-roles and norms through contradiction in such areas as physical characteristics including dialect and clothes, non-verbal gestures, area of employment and activities of social enjoyment. Although tolerance to this minority group may be argued the stereotyping particularly of males who display feminine characteristics is sustained through the element of socialisation and in particular the agents of family, peers and the media. Although being homosexual is still strongly discouraged it is important to note the recent movement over a time span of roughly the past five years of the popularity of sensitive new age guys (S.N.A.G.S) and metro-sexual who defy the construct of a typical macho male by being concerned with their image and being a considerate listener to the extreme of promoting of wearing of pink shirts. However, machoism has returned as favourable resulting in a backlash towards homosexuals. Ways in which his stereotype can be altered include increase contact with homosexuals in addition to changing the roles within the media.
Different theories about what determines a person’s sexual orientation include investigating evolution, genes and parenting techniques particularly by the mother. Diamond proposes that evolution has shaped the sex drive to focus on the opposite gender in order for procreation and continuation of the species to occur in contrast to attachment which is gender neutral. The social constructionist theory focuses on cultural and social aspects on modifying the meanings people assign to their lives focusing on the social, political and media influences. Bem however proposes that during childhood homosexuals play mainly with the opposite gender and resulting in the same gender as exotic and that the significant increase in bisexual females to males is due to the a more level of sharing of time between the genders. In regards to the gene debate research has revealed that the rate of both identical twins being homosexual is only fifty percent significantly lower than expected if genes were considered the main predictor of sexual orientation.
Realistic conflict theory focuses on rivalry over limited resources results in intergroup hostility and conflict. This is in contrast with social dominance model where stereotypes legitimise myths and are used as a justification for negative attitudes, essentially an intergroup phenomenon focusing on dominance over out-groups independent of in-group authority figures (Whitley 1999).
The majority of research examining homosexuals focuses on males; this is due to men who are stereotypically defined as possessing female traits being more likely labelled as homosexual, with a greater gender role ridgity resulting in a higher rate of males who do not conform to these rules (LaMar & Kite 1998). Overlap between attitudes and actual behaviour has a higher correlation for males with 85% of males favouring homosexuality activity also engaging in it within the year (Baumeister & Bushman 2008). In addition to this research has focused on which individuals are most likely to engage in stereotyping with findings revealing people possessing higher tendencies of authoritarianism to structure their worldviews into in and out groups. These people are severely threatened by people who do not conform to the traditional values and perceive themselves as more moral than people in the out groups and therefore allows them to point out the errors of people engaged in immoral behaviour, as with the people labelled as homosexuals (Whitely 1999).
One of the cues that support a person’s stereotyping of a male as being homosexual is his dialect with recent research studying if students could correctly identify the sexual orientation of a speaker depending whether or not he spoke with ‘gay speech’ in which there was an accentuate dynamic intonation and the frequency of the /s/ sound. The significance of stereotyping was investigated within this experiment through observing if giving a label resulted in a difference of college admission and scholarship (Gowen & Britt 2006).
In addition to this a person’s occupation can significantly contribute to stereotyping particularly with employment in the hairdressing, airline and nursing industries. It has been proposed that it is not necessary for an individual to belong to a socially devalued group to experience stigmatisation and misclassification, however, when role violators have an opportunity to inform observers that they are within the majority unpleasant reactions can be significantly decreased (Bosson, Prewitt-Freilino & Taylor 2005). When in working within an industry that is associated with masculinity, for example the armed forces, if suspected of having gay tendencies not only will physical, mental and verbal abuse follow but retrenchment is often used to weed out what is considered deviant behaviour (Bowling, Firestone & Harris 2005).
The negative consequences of stereotyping has lead to the extreme of bashing of people due to their sexual orientation and in the case of Matthew Shepard this aggression lead to the taking away of his life (Baumeister & Bushman 2008).
Religious affiliations have openly turned away homosexuals from their group and abused homosexuals through the use of words. Often the bible is quoted in conjunction with interpretations including all gays go to hell and God says no to man loving man. Another ethical issue to consider often stereotyped to all homosexuals is that of AIDS, including who should be treated and to the extreme myths that going near a homosexual person will result in AIDS instantly being transmitted. Although many people in this day and age would consider the myths about AIDS to be fully debunked research into the current views of Australian’s reveal that there is still a considerably large proportion of falsities being strongly held.
The media’s representation of homosexuals within Australia has included such programs on television as queer as folk and queer eye for the straight guy while gay guys within series and films such as Priscilla Queen of the Desert reinforce stereotypes. In addition to this news coverage and biases of certain events including the Mardi Gras alongside radio presenter’s opinions influence people’s perception and openness for people within the minority groups.
One of the motives behind the negative stereotyping is due to the fear of the minority gaining power. This not only has lead to discrimination but also concerns the legal rights of those in a homosexual relationship. The non-legalisation of marriage between same sex relationships results in the discrimination in areas including IVF treatment, adoption, welfare benefits and legal battles following death while the current government’s reasoning for not allowing equal legal benefits is predominantly due to religious beliefs and the cost to a nation both monetary and socially.
However there have been slow steps forward within the discrimination process including legalisation of marriage in other countries in addition to positive discrimination in the case of a nightclub in Melbourne where only people declaring their same sex orientation are allowed in. If this was reversed for heterosexuals there would be an outrage however due to it being a minority it is considered to be a positive step within the balancing process.
Although stereotyping can be beneficial in certain circumstances in regards to homosexuality it predominantly results in prejudice and negative attitudes and behaviours and exists only in such force due to the influential agents of socialisation. In order to break this cycle it is necessary for contact to be made between the observer and the person being stereotyped. Increasing in the number of times between the predicted behaviour and the observed behaviour not correlating the weaker the stereotype will become and tolerance and acceptance can become a serious possibility. Without this acceptance the minority cannot rise to an equal standing and altered behaviour will continue to ensue after stereotyping resulting in disrespect due to lack of understanding and the negative stigma never to be broken.
References
Baumeister, R, F. & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social Psychology & Human Nature. Thomson Wadsworth Belmont, CA, USA.
Bosson, J. K., Prewitt-Freilino, J. L. & Taylor, J. N. (2005). Role ridgity: A problem of identity misclassification? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, (4) 525-565.
Bowling, K. L., Firestone, J. M. & Harris, R. J. (2005) Analyzing questions that cannot be asked of respondents who cannot respond. Armed Forces & Society, 31, (3) 411-437.
Gowen, C. W. & Britt, C. W (2006). The interactive effects of homosexual speech and sexual orientation on the stigmatization of men: Evidence for expectancy violation theory. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 25, (437).
Jackson, L. A., Lewandoswki, D. A., Ingram, J. M & Hodge, C. N. (1997). Group stereotypes: Content, gender specificity, and affect associated with typical group members. Journal of Social Behaviour & Personality, 12, (2) 381-396.
LaMar, L. & Kite, M. (1998) Sex Differences in attitudes toward gay men and lesbians: A multidimensional perspective, The Journal of Sex Research, 35 (2), 186-199.
Whitley, B. E. (1999) Right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, (1), 126-134.
Different theories about what determines a person’s sexual orientation include investigating evolution, genes and parenting techniques particularly by the mother. Diamond proposes that evolution has shaped the sex drive to focus on the opposite gender in order for procreation and continuation of the species to occur in contrast to attachment which is gender neutral. The social constructionist theory focuses on cultural and social aspects on modifying the meanings people assign to their lives focusing on the social, political and media influences. Bem however proposes that during childhood homosexuals play mainly with the opposite gender and resulting in the same gender as exotic and that the significant increase in bisexual females to males is due to the a more level of sharing of time between the genders. In regards to the gene debate research has revealed that the rate of both identical twins being homosexual is only fifty percent significantly lower than expected if genes were considered the main predictor of sexual orientation.
Realistic conflict theory focuses on rivalry over limited resources results in intergroup hostility and conflict. This is in contrast with social dominance model where stereotypes legitimise myths and are used as a justification for negative attitudes, essentially an intergroup phenomenon focusing on dominance over out-groups independent of in-group authority figures (Whitley 1999).
The majority of research examining homosexuals focuses on males; this is due to men who are stereotypically defined as possessing female traits being more likely labelled as homosexual, with a greater gender role ridgity resulting in a higher rate of males who do not conform to these rules (LaMar & Kite 1998). Overlap between attitudes and actual behaviour has a higher correlation for males with 85% of males favouring homosexuality activity also engaging in it within the year (Baumeister & Bushman 2008). In addition to this research has focused on which individuals are most likely to engage in stereotyping with findings revealing people possessing higher tendencies of authoritarianism to structure their worldviews into in and out groups. These people are severely threatened by people who do not conform to the traditional values and perceive themselves as more moral than people in the out groups and therefore allows them to point out the errors of people engaged in immoral behaviour, as with the people labelled as homosexuals (Whitely 1999).
One of the cues that support a person’s stereotyping of a male as being homosexual is his dialect with recent research studying if students could correctly identify the sexual orientation of a speaker depending whether or not he spoke with ‘gay speech’ in which there was an accentuate dynamic intonation and the frequency of the /s/ sound. The significance of stereotyping was investigated within this experiment through observing if giving a label resulted in a difference of college admission and scholarship (Gowen & Britt 2006).
In addition to this a person’s occupation can significantly contribute to stereotyping particularly with employment in the hairdressing, airline and nursing industries. It has been proposed that it is not necessary for an individual to belong to a socially devalued group to experience stigmatisation and misclassification, however, when role violators have an opportunity to inform observers that they are within the majority unpleasant reactions can be significantly decreased (Bosson, Prewitt-Freilino & Taylor 2005). When in working within an industry that is associated with masculinity, for example the armed forces, if suspected of having gay tendencies not only will physical, mental and verbal abuse follow but retrenchment is often used to weed out what is considered deviant behaviour (Bowling, Firestone & Harris 2005).
The negative consequences of stereotyping has lead to the extreme of bashing of people due to their sexual orientation and in the case of Matthew Shepard this aggression lead to the taking away of his life (Baumeister & Bushman 2008).
Religious affiliations have openly turned away homosexuals from their group and abused homosexuals through the use of words. Often the bible is quoted in conjunction with interpretations including all gays go to hell and God says no to man loving man. Another ethical issue to consider often stereotyped to all homosexuals is that of AIDS, including who should be treated and to the extreme myths that going near a homosexual person will result in AIDS instantly being transmitted. Although many people in this day and age would consider the myths about AIDS to be fully debunked research into the current views of Australian’s reveal that there is still a considerably large proportion of falsities being strongly held.
The media’s representation of homosexuals within Australia has included such programs on television as queer as folk and queer eye for the straight guy while gay guys within series and films such as Priscilla Queen of the Desert reinforce stereotypes. In addition to this news coverage and biases of certain events including the Mardi Gras alongside radio presenter’s opinions influence people’s perception and openness for people within the minority groups.
One of the motives behind the negative stereotyping is due to the fear of the minority gaining power. This not only has lead to discrimination but also concerns the legal rights of those in a homosexual relationship. The non-legalisation of marriage between same sex relationships results in the discrimination in areas including IVF treatment, adoption, welfare benefits and legal battles following death while the current government’s reasoning for not allowing equal legal benefits is predominantly due to religious beliefs and the cost to a nation both monetary and socially.
However there have been slow steps forward within the discrimination process including legalisation of marriage in other countries in addition to positive discrimination in the case of a nightclub in Melbourne where only people declaring their same sex orientation are allowed in. If this was reversed for heterosexuals there would be an outrage however due to it being a minority it is considered to be a positive step within the balancing process.
Although stereotyping can be beneficial in certain circumstances in regards to homosexuality it predominantly results in prejudice and negative attitudes and behaviours and exists only in such force due to the influential agents of socialisation. In order to break this cycle it is necessary for contact to be made between the observer and the person being stereotyped. Increasing in the number of times between the predicted behaviour and the observed behaviour not correlating the weaker the stereotype will become and tolerance and acceptance can become a serious possibility. Without this acceptance the minority cannot rise to an equal standing and altered behaviour will continue to ensue after stereotyping resulting in disrespect due to lack of understanding and the negative stigma never to be broken.
References
Baumeister, R, F. & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social Psychology & Human Nature. Thomson Wadsworth Belmont, CA, USA.
Bosson, J. K., Prewitt-Freilino, J. L. & Taylor, J. N. (2005). Role ridgity: A problem of identity misclassification? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, (4) 525-565.
Bowling, K. L., Firestone, J. M. & Harris, R. J. (2005) Analyzing questions that cannot be asked of respondents who cannot respond. Armed Forces & Society, 31, (3) 411-437.
Gowen, C. W. & Britt, C. W (2006). The interactive effects of homosexual speech and sexual orientation on the stigmatization of men: Evidence for expectancy violation theory. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 25, (437).
Jackson, L. A., Lewandoswki, D. A., Ingram, J. M & Hodge, C. N. (1997). Group stereotypes: Content, gender specificity, and affect associated with typical group members. Journal of Social Behaviour & Personality, 12, (2) 381-396.
LaMar, L. & Kite, M. (1998) Sex Differences in attitudes toward gay men and lesbians: A multidimensional perspective, The Journal of Sex Research, 35 (2), 186-199.
Whitley, B. E. (1999) Right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, (1), 126-134.
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